Which of the following are considered stochastic effects of radiation exposure?

Stochastic effects of radiation exposure refer to effects that occur by chance and usually have a probabilistic nature. This means that the probability of the effect occurring increases with the dose of radiation received, but the severity of the effect does not depend on the dose. Cancer is a prime example of a stochastic effect; there is an increased likelihood of developing cancer with higher doses of radiation exposure. However, it is not guaranteed that cancer will develop in every individual exposed, as other factors also play a role.

In contrast, the other effects mentioned follow a deterministic model. Hematologic syndrome and central nervous system syndrome are examples of deterministic effects, which occur above a certain threshold of radiation exposure and have a direct correlation between dose and severity. Likewise, skin erythema, or radiation burns on the skin, also represents a deterministic effect, where higher doses lead to observable tissue damage.

This distinction between stochastic and deterministic effects is fundamental in understanding the risks associated with radiation exposure, particularly in fields such as medicine and radiological safety.